Mastering the Hashtag Game: Why Strategy Matters

Instagram hashtag strategies remain one of the most powerful yet underused tools for expanding your reach in 2024. Looking for the quick answer? Here's what you need to know:

Instagram's algorithm uses hashtags as crucial context signals to understand and categorize your content. Despite what you might have heard, hashtags aren't dead – they're evolving. According to a comprehensive analysis of over 18 million Instagram posts, content with strategic hashtags consistently outperforms untagged content in both reach and engagement.

The data is clear: posts with 20 hashtags receive the highest average reach rate, while Instagram officially recommends using just 3-5 relevant hashtags. This disconnect highlights why most marketers aren't maximizing their hashtag potential.

"Hashtags are still one of the most effective ways to get more eyes (and engagement!) on your Instagram posts," notes social media expert Lindsay Ashcraft. The key isn't just using hashtags – it's using the right hashtags in the right way.

For marketing heads at small to midsize businesses, an effective hashtag strategy can be the difference between content that disappears into the void and content that consistently reaches your target audience. And the best part? It costs nothing but a bit of strategic thinking.

Glossary for Instagram hashtag strategies: - Instagram brand engagement - Instagram business tools - Instagram giveaway ideas

Why Hashtags Still Matter in 2024

When Instagram's algorithm seems to change with the seasons, many marketers wonder: are hashtags still worth the effort? The answer is a resounding yes – and the data backs this up.

Recent analysis by Later examining over 18 million Instagram posts revealed something fascinating: strategic hashtag use consistently boosts content findability. Posts with hashtags outperform their untagged counterparts, with even a single hashtag potentially increasing engagement by up to 12.6%. That's a significant return for such minimal effort!

But hashtags do much more than just pump up your numbers. They serve as crucial signposts for Instagram's algorithm, helping the platform understand your content's context and match it with interested viewers. As Instagram continues to refine its recommendation systems in 2024, these signals have become even more valuable.

"Hashtags tell Instagram about your content," explains social media strategist Peg Fitzpatrick. "They're like little guides that guide the algorithm in categorizing and distributing your posts to the right audiences."

The benefits of Instagram hashtag strategies extend far beyond algorithm appeasement. When used thoughtfully, hashtags connect your content with people actively seeking what you offer. They place your posts on hashtag pages where new eyes can find you. Users following specific hashtags will see your content directly in their feeds – even if they don't follow your account yet.

For businesses building communities, niche hashtags help you find and engage with your most passionate potential customers. Branded hashtags make collecting and showcasing user-generated content seamless. And for measuring campaign success, unique hashtags provide a simple tracking mechanism.

Unlike Facebook, where hashtags play a minimal role, Instagram's findy ecosystem relies heavily on these categorization tools. This fundamental difference in Instagram vs Facebook platforms explains why hashtag strategy remains crucial specifically for Instagram success. As research published in Science Direct confirms, content with strategic hashtags receives significantly higher engagement across social platforms, with Instagram showing particularly strong correlation.

The key distinction lies in user behavior: Instagram users actively search and follow hashtags, while Facebook users rarely engage with them. This behavioral difference is why hashtags continue to drive meaningful results on Instagram while falling flat on other platforms.

What's changed in 2024 isn't whether hashtags matter, but how to use them effectively. The platform's evolution requires a more sophisticated approach – one that balances visibility with relevance. Let's explore the blueprint for hashtag success in today's Instagram landscape.

Instagram hashtag strategies: A 7-Step Blueprint

Creating an effective Instagram hashtag strategy isn't just about randomly sprinkling pound signs throughout your caption. Think of it as a craft that requires thoughtful planning and a touch of creativity. When done right, hashtags can dramatically expand your content's reach without costing you a penny.

Imagine your hashtag strategy as climbing a ladder – each step builds on the previous one, lifting your content's visibility higher with every rung. Let's walk through our comprehensive 7-step blueprint together:

Step 1: Research Keywords & Instagram Hashtag Strategies

The foundation of any great hashtag strategy starts with knowing your landscape. Begin by brainstorming 5-10 topics directly related to your brand and content pillars. What words would your ideal customer search for?

Next, take a peek at what your successful competitors are doing. Which hashtags appear consistently in their most engaged posts? These patterns can reveal golden opportunities.

Instagram's search bar is also your secret weapon. When you type potential keywords, Instagram suggests related terms that are already popular on the platform. These suggestions are like little gifts from the algorithm!

When analyzing hashtag volume, aim for the sweet spot – hashtags with between 10,000 and 200,000 posts. As social media expert Manpreet Kalra wisely points out, "Hashtags with millions of posts move so quickly that your content gets buried within minutes."

Blue Apron's social media team finded this firsthand. While #mealkit had millions of posts, the more specific #weeknightdinner (with around 150K posts) actually drove higher-quality engagement for their content. This perfectly illustrates why relevance trumps sheer volume every time.

Step 2: Build a Balanced Hashtag Mix

Think of hashtags as different ingredients in a recipe – you need variety for the best flavor. A well-balanced hashtag strategy includes:

Branded hashtags that are unique to your business (like #SocialSellinatorTips) help build your identity. Community hashtags connect you with specific groups (#SocialMediaManagers), while location hashtags target geographical areas (#SanFranciscoBusiness).

Don't forget to sprinkle in some event hashtags tied to holidays or current happenings (#SmallBusinessSaturday), along with daily hashtags that leverage trending themes (#MotivationMonday). Round out your mix with niche hashtags targeting specific industry segments (#OrganicSkincare) and a few trending hashtags that keep you current.

The performance difference between hashtag types is striking:

Fitness brand Sweaty Betty masterfully combines different hashtag types in each post. They'll use #GlobalRunningDay (event), #iamasweatybetty (branded), #RunningTips (niche), and #LondonRunners (location) to create a balanced mix that reaches different audience segments.

Step 3: Decide the Right Count

The "how many hashtags" debate can make your head spin! Instagram officially recommends using just 3-5 relevant hashtags per post. Yet Later's analysis of 18 million posts found that posts with 20 hashtags achieved the highest average reach rate, while posts with 30 hashtags generated the highest engagement rate.

Adding another layer of complexity, a study by Piqora found that seven hashtags per post generated up to 23% more likes.

So what's the right answer? It depends on your specific audience. Start with these friendly guidelines:

For reach optimization, try using 20 relevant, researched hashtags. If engagement is your focus, experiment with using the full 30 hashtags allowed. Prefer cleaner aesthetics? Test 7-11 highly targeted hashtags.

As social media strategist Jenn Herman wisely notes, "The sweet spot varies by account. What works for one brand might not work for another. The key is consistency in testing until you find your optimal number."

Step 4: Caption vs First Comment Placement

Should you place hashtags in your caption or the first comment? Good news – from a technical standpoint, either works perfectly fine!

Caption placement gives you immediate indexing when the post is published, guaranteed association with your content, and easier management with scheduling tools.

First comment placement offers cleaner caption aesthetics, less distraction from your primary message, and can be automatically scheduled with tools like Later or Buffer.

According to Later's research, there's no significant difference in performance between the two options. The choice really comes down to your personal preference and workflow.

If you prefer caption placement but worry about aesthetics, try the "period + line break" technique to push hashtags below the "more" cutoff:

``` Your engaging caption goes here. . . .

hashtag1 #hashtag2 #hashtag3

```

For first comment placement, be sure to post your hashtags immediately after publishing to ensure they're associated with your content from the start.

Step 5: Placement Techniques for Instagram Hashtag Strategies

Let's get creative with how you display those hashtags! Beyond the basic caption vs. comment decision, several clever placement techniques can improve your Instagram hashtag strategy:

Add up to 10 hashtags to Stories using the hashtag sticker or text tool. Want a cleaner look? Try pinching to reduce the size of text hashtags, hiding hashtags behind other stickers or GIFs, or matching hashtag color to the background for nearly invisible tags.

In feed posts, you can cleverly hide hashtags by adding line breaks with periods between your caption and hashtags, placing hashtags after the "more" cutoff in longer captions, or using a color-matched text box in image design programs.

Create visual separation between your message and hashtags using periods, dashes, or emoji as line breaks. While adding hashtags to alt text doesn't affect hashtag search, using descriptive keywords in your alt text provides another findy avenue through Instagram's search function.

When posting Reels, select up to 3 relevant topics in addition to using hashtags. This provides Instagram with additional context signals that help categorize your content.

Fitness brand Tone It Up demonstrates these techniques beautifully. In Stories, they hide hashtags behind workout demonstration videos or shrink them to fit discreetly in the corner. For feed posts, they use line breaks to keep captions clean while still including their full hashtag set.

Step 6: Avoid Banned & Irrelevant Hashtags

Using banned or irrelevant hashtags can be like accidentally stepping on the brakes when you're trying to accelerate your reach. Instagram occasionally restricts hashtags that violate community guidelines or become hijacked by spammers – and surprisingly, even seemingly innocent hashtags can land on this list.

To check if a hashtag is banned, simply search for it in Instagram's search bar. If you see a message that posts are "hidden" or limited, steer clear. Similarly, if no recent posts appear despite a high post count, it may be restricted.

Irrelevant hashtags are equally problematic. The Instagram algorithm has gotten impressively smart at detecting when you're adding trending hashtags that don't relate to your content, using the exact same set of hashtags on every post, or including extremely popular hashtags just for reach (#love, #instagood).

One software engineer shared a cautionary tale about a friend whose post was effectively "banned" after repeatedly using the same set of hashtags. The algorithm flagged this as spammy behavior, significantly reducing the post's reach. One highly relevant hashtag will benefit you more than ten loosely related ones.

Step 7: Track, Rotate & Refresh

The final step in your Instagram hashtag strategy is ongoing optimization – because hashtags aren't a "set it and forget it" tactic.

Instagram's native Insights provides valuable data on how many impressions came "From Hashtags" for each post. Use this information to identify which hashtag sets drive the most findy. For more advanced tracking, tools like Later, Sprout Social, or Hootsuite provide detailed hashtag analytics.

Avoid using the identical set of hashtags on every post. Instead, create 3-5 different hashtag sets for different content themes, swap out at least 25% of your hashtags between posts, and continuously test different combinations to identify top performers.

Schedule quarterly reviews to research new trending hashtags in your niche, remove underperforming hashtags, add fresh, relevant options, and update your saved hashtag sets.

As Lindsay Ashcraft of Later emphasizes, "Hashtags are not a set-it-and-forget-it strategy. The most successful accounts consistently refine their approach based on performance data."

By following this 7-step blueprint, you'll transform hashtags from an afterthought into a powerful findability engine for your Instagram content. The key is being systematic, relevant, and adaptable as both your account and the platform evolve.

Headquartered in San Jose, in the heart of Silicon Valley and the San Francisco Bay Area, SocialSellinator proudly provides top-tier digital marketing, SEO, PPC, social media management, and content creation services to B2B and B2C SMB companies. While serving businesses across the U.S., SocialSellinator specializes in supporting clients in key cities, including Austin, Boston, Charlotte, Chicago, Dallas, Denver, Kansas City, Los Angeles, New York, Portland, San Diego, San Francisco, and Washington, D.C.

Tools, Tracking & Pitfalls: From Research to Reporting

Let's face it – managing an effective Instagram hashtag strategy can feel overwhelming without the right tools in your corner. Think of these resources as your social media sidekicks, making the complex world of hashtags much more manageable.

When it comes to researching the perfect hashtags, several tools stand out from the crowd. Later's Hashtag Suggestion Tool has become a favorite among our clients, analyzing both your captions and images to recommend relevant tags. If you're into AI-powered solutions, Hootsuite's Hashtag Generator delivers surprisingly nuanced suggestions based on your content themes. For those who appreciate visual organization, Tailwind's Hashtag Finder not only suggests tags but helpfully categorizes them by competitiveness – perfect for building that balanced hashtag mix we discussed earlier.

"Finding the right hashtag balance changed everything for our content strategy," shares one of our e-commerce clients. "Using Display Purposes to generate hashtag sets based on relevance rather than just popularity helped us connect with people who actually converted."

Once you've found your winning hashtags, implementation becomes your next challenge. Buffer and Later both excel at saving hashtag groups for quick reuse and can automatically place your hashtags in first comments if that's your preferred approach. Even Instagram itself offers a simple solution through its native Saved Captions feature, letting you store hashtag sets right within the app for easy access during posting.

But the real magic happens when you start tracking performance. Instagram Insights provides the basics, showing you how many impressions came "From Hashtags" for business accounts. For deeper analysis, Sprout Social's analytics tools track hashtag performance across posts, helping you identify patterns over time. For competitive intelligence, Rival IQ stands out by analyzing competitor hashtag strategies – perfect for finding gaps in your approach.

Common hashtag pitfalls can undermine even the best strategy. Hashtag spamming – using too many irrelevant tags – remains the number one mistake we see brands make. Almost as damaging is a static strategy where hashtag sets never evolve, or inconsistent tracking that fails to measure which tags actually drive results.

A small handmade jewelry business we worked with provides a perfect case study. Initially struggling with minimal reach, they were using broad tags like #jewelry and #accessories, competing against millions of posts from major brands. Using Later's hashtag tools, they finded that more specific tags like #wirewrappedjewelry (180K posts) and #handmaderings (95K posts) connected them with a much more engaged audience. Within just two months, their average post reach increased by 52%, and more importantly, their profile visits converted to sales at nearly triple their previous rate.

The key takeaway? Tools matter, but strategy matters more. The best hashtag tools amplify a thoughtful approach rather than replacing it.

For more insights on improving your overall Instagram performance beyond hashtags, our guide on Instagram Brand Engagement offers practical tips you can implement today.

At SocialSellinator, we incorporate comprehensive hashtag strategies into our broader social media services, ensuring your content consistently reaches the right audience at the right time.

Adapting Strategies by Account Size, Industry & Campaign Type

Your Instagram hashtag strategy shouldn't be a cookie-cutter approach. What works for a global fitness brand won't necessarily drive results for your local bakery. Let's explore how to tailor your hashtag approach based on who you are, what you do, and what you're trying to accomplish.

By Account Size

If you're running a small account with under 5,000 followers, think of yourself as the nimble speedboat rather than the massive cruise ship. Your advantage is maneuverability in smaller, less competitive spaces.

Focus on micro-niche hashtags with 10,000-100,000 posts where your content won't immediately disappear. Accept your local identity with location-specific tags, and don't be shy about using 15-20 hashtags per post to maximize findability.

A perfect example comes from a small Portland bakery with just 2,000 followers. While they could have thrown their delicious pastry photos into the crowded #BakeryLife feed (2M+ posts), they instead dominated local conversations with #PortlandBakery (8K posts) and #PDXDesserts (15K posts), becoming a neighborhood favorite in the process.

For medium-sized accounts (5,000-50,000 followers), your strategy should evolve. Balance niche and mid-range hashtags while developing a branded hashtag that your growing audience can rally around. You've earned the right to be slightly more selective – 10-15 well-researched hashtags per post is your sweet spot, and you should be rotating these sets regularly to keep content fresh.

Large accounts (50,000+ followers) have different priorities. With significant organic reach already in place, your hashtag strategy should focus on community-building and brand reinforcement. Use fewer but more strategic hashtags (5-10) and invest heavily in your branded hashtag.

Take Gymshark as the gold standard here. Despite millions of followers, they rarely use more than 5-7 hashtags per post. Instead, they've cultivated their #Gymshark branded hashtag into a community powerhouse with over 15 million posts – most created by customers and ambassadors, not the brand itself.

By Industry

Different industries have their own hashtag ecosystems, and understanding yours is crucial for success.

In the fashion and beauty world, movement-based hashtags like #OOTD (outfit of the day) and #BeautyTips drive tremendous engagement. Event-based tags like #NYFW can also provide seasonal boosts. The most successful beauty brands take broad concepts and narrow them to their specific niche – #CleanBeauty instead of just #Beauty, or #MinimalistStyle rather than just #Fashion.

Fitness and wellness accounts thrive on a three-part hashtag approach: motivational tags that inspire (#FitnessMotivation), specific workout methods that educate (#HIITWorkout), and inclusive messaging that welcomes all body types (#BodyPositivity).

For technology and software companies, especially in B2B spaces, effective hashtags bridge technical and business conversations. Industry tags like #TechNews and #SaaS help establish authority, while problem-solution tags like #ProductivityHacks connect with pain points. Event hashtags like #CES2024 can temporarily boost visibility during major industry gatherings.

Food and beverage brands have perhaps the most visually driven hashtag landscape. Beyond the obvious #FoodPorn and #Foodie tags, success comes from combining dietary tags (#GlutenFree, #VeganRecipes) with day-themed opportunities (#TacoTuesday) that create posting rhythms followers can anticipate.

Travel content performs best with a layered approach: destination tags (#VisitCalifornia), experience descriptors (#SoloTravel), and visual style indicators (#TravelPhotography) work together to reach diverse audiences planning different types of trips.

B2B services face unique challenges since their content isn't naturally as visual. Focus on industry tags (#MarketingStrategy), pain-point descriptors (#LeadGeneration), and thought leadership indicators (#BusinessGrowth) to reach decision-makers in your target market.

By Campaign Type

The final piece of your hashtag puzzle should align with your specific marketing objectives.

For product launches, create a unique campaign hashtag that's memorable and specific to the launch. Pair this with relevant industry tags and action-oriented phrases (#GetYours, #LimitedEdition) to create urgency. Consider how your hashtag will look visually in your promotional materials – shorter is usually better for design purposes.

UGC contests live or die by their hashtag strategy. Your campaign hashtag must be distinctive, easy to remember, and clearly explained. The most successful UGC hashtags are slightly clever but impossible to misinterpret.

Starbucks' annual #RedCupContest exemplifies this perfectly. Each holiday season, customers share photos with their seasonal red cups using the hashtag for a chance to win prizes. The campaign consistently generates thousands of authentic customer posts because the instructions are crystal clear: buy a red cup, take a photo, use the hashtag, maybe win something cool.

For brand awareness campaigns, balance is key. Mix your branded hashtags with industry standards and carefully selected trending topics that align with your message. The goal is to introduce your brand to new audiences without appearing opportunistic or off-brand.

Event marketing requires both immediacy and legacy planning. Create a unique event hashtag, but consider how it will archive over time. Adobe's annual MAX conference brilliantly uses #AdobeMAX as their consistent base while adding year-specific tags like #AdobeMAX2023. This approach organizes current content while maintaining a searchable archive of past events.

Want to dig deeper into building recognition for your brand on Instagram? Visit our guide on Instagram Brand Awareness for more expert insights.

Headquartered in San Jose, in the heart of Silicon Valley and the San Francisco Bay Area, SocialSellinator proudly provides top-tier digital marketing, SEO, PPC, social media management, and content creation services to B2B and B2C SMB companies. While serving businesses across the U.S., SocialSellinator specializes in supporting clients in key cities, including Austin, Boston, Charlotte, Chicago, Dallas, Denver, Kansas City, Los Angeles, New York, Portland, San Diego, San Francisco, and Washington, D.C.

Frequently Asked Questions about Instagram Hashtag Strategies

Are Instagram hashtags still effective for reach and engagement?

Yes, hashtags absolutely remain effective for Instagram in 2024 – and that's not just opinion, it's backed by data. Later's massive analysis of over 18 million posts confirmed what many marketers suspect: content with strategic hashtags consistently outperforms posts without them.

Think of hashtags as little signposts directing the right people to your content. They work in two important ways:

First, they help with direct findy when users search for or follow specific hashtags. Second (and perhaps more importantly), they provide crucial context signals to Instagram's algorithm about what your content contains and who might enjoy seeing it.

"Hashtags aren't just search tools anymore," explains social media expert Jenn Herman. "They're fundamental signals that help Instagram's algorithm understand and distribute your content to the right audiences – kind of like telling the algorithm exactly who should see your posts."

The numbers speak for themselves: posts using even a single relevant hashtag see an average 12.6% boost in engagement compared to hashtag-free posts. That's a significant return for such a simple addition to your content.

How many hashtags should I use for optimal results?

The "perfect" hashtag count is a bit like asking how long a piece of string should be – it depends on your specific goals:

If you're aiming for maximum reach, the data suggests 20 hashtags hits the sweet spot (based on Later's comprehensive analysis). For highest possible engagement, you might want to use all 30 hashtags Instagram allows. If you're looking for balanced performance, 7-11 hashtags seems to work well across multiple studies.

Interestingly, Instagram officially recommends just 3-5 hashtags – which contradicts what most data-driven studies have found. This disconnect highlights why testing is so important for your specific account.

The best approach? Create a simple testing plan: - Try posts with 5, 10, 20, and 30 hashtags - Compare your reach and engagement numbers - Identify what works best for your specific audience - Keep refining within that range

Quality always trumps quantity. Ten perfectly targeted hashtags will outperform thirty loosely related ones every time. A fitness coach focusing on postpartum health will see better results from #PostpartumFitness than from the generic #FitnessGoals, even though the latter has millions more posts.

Should I place hashtags in the caption or the first comment?

Both options work equally well from a technical perspective. Instagram's system recognizes and indexes your hashtags regardless of where you put them.

This choice really comes down to personal preference and workflow:

Caption placement gives you immediate indexing and guaranteed association with your post. It's also simpler with most scheduling tools. The downside? It can make captions look cluttered or eat into your character limit.

First comment placement keeps your captions clean and focused on your message. Many brands like Lululemon use this approach to maintain an uncluttered aesthetic. The potential drawback is a slight delay in indexing if you don't post the comment immediately.

If you prefer caption placement but worry about aesthetics, try the line break technique: use periods or other characters followed by line breaks to push your hashtags below the "more" cutoff, like this:

``` Your engaging caption ends here. . . .

hashtag1 #hashtag2 #hashtag3

```

GoPro takes a different approach, weaving hashtags naturally into their conversational captions: "Captured this epic sunset while #hiking through #YosemiteNationalPark yesterday!"

The performance difference between these placement options is negligible, so choose what works best for your brand voice and content workflow.

Headquartered in San Jose, in the heart of Silicon Valley and the San Francisco Bay Area, SocialSellinator proudly provides top-tier digital marketing, SEO, PPC, social media management, and content creation services to B2B and B2C SMB companies. While serving businesses across the U.S., SocialSellinator specializes in supporting clients in key cities, including Austin, Boston, Charlotte, Chicago, Dallas, Denver, Kansas City, Los Angeles, New York, Portland, San Diego, San Francisco, and Washington, D.C.

Conclusion

Instagram hashtag strategies aren't just digital decorations for your posts—they're powerful tools that can dramatically expand your content's reach when used with intention and intelligence.

After diving deep into the data and best practices, here's what we've learned about making hashtags work for your brand:

1. Hashtags remain remarkably effective in 2024. The analysis of 18 million posts doesn't lie—strategic hashtag use consistently drives higher reach and engagement compared to posts without them.

2. A balanced hashtag ecosystem yields the best results. Like a well-crafted recipe, you need the right mix of branded, niche, community, and trending ingredients to create something truly effective.

3. The numbers tell an interesting story. While Instagram officially suggests using just 3-5 hashtags, the data clearly shows that posts with around 20 hashtags generate the highest reach. This disconnect highlights why many brands aren't maximizing their hashtag potential.

4. Placement is a matter of preference, not performance. Whether you tuck your hashtags into the caption or add them as the first comment, the algorithm treats them equally—so choose what works best for your brand's aesthetic.

5. Research isn't optional—it's essential. Target hashtags with 10,000-200,000 posts for that sweet spot between visibility and competition where your content has room to shine.

6. Freshness matters. The most successful brands regularly rotate their hashtag sets and conduct quarterly strategy refreshes to stay relevant as trends evolve.

7. What gets measured gets improved. Use Instagram Insights to track which hashtag combinations drive the most findy, then double down on what works.

The brands seeing the greatest Instagram success don't treat hashtags as an afterthought—they weave them thoughtfully into their content strategy from day one. By following the 7-step blueprint we've outlined, you'll transform hashtags from simple categorization tools into powerful engines for audience growth.

Ready to lift your Instagram hashtag strategy from good to great? At SocialSellinator, we help businesses cut through the social media noise with data-driven approaches that deliver measurable results. Our team stays on the cutting edge of platform changes and industry best practices so you can focus on what you do best—running your business.

We've helped dozens of brands just like yours open up the full potential of their Instagram presence through strategic hashtag use combined with comprehensive content planning. The difference between random hashtags and a thoughtful strategy can mean thousands of additional impressions on every post you share.

Reach out today to find how our team can transform your Instagram performance through expert hashtag strategy and holistic social media management.

Headquartered in San Jose, in the heart of Silicon Valley and the San Francisco Bay Area, SocialSellinator proudly provides top-tier digital marketing, SEO, PPC, social media management, and content creation services to B2B and B2C SMB companies. While serving businesses across the U.S., SocialSellinator specializes in supporting clients in key cities, including Austin, Boston, Charlotte, Chicago, Dallas, Denver, Kansas City, Los Angeles, New York, Portland, San Diego, San Francisco, and Washington, D.C.